National Movement from 1905 to 1918

 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909)

The era of militant nationalism in India refers to the period between 1905 and 1909, during which the Indian nationalist movement became more radical and militant in its approach to challenging British colonial rule. Here are some key events and characteristics of this era:

Partition of Bengal (1905): In 1905, the British colonial government partitioned Bengal, a province in eastern India, on the basis of religion. The predominantly Muslim eastern region was separated from the predominantly Hindu western region. The move was widely seen as an attempt to weaken the growing nationalist movement by dividing the population along religious lines.

Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908): The partition of Bengal led to a massive wave of protests and boycotts, with Indian nationalists calling for a boycott of British goods and the promotion of indigenous products. This movement, known as the Swadeshi movement, was characterized by a strong sense of Indian nationalism and self-reliance.

Formation of Indian National Congress (1906): In 1906, the All India Muslim League was formed in order to promote the interests of Muslim Indians. This prompted the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) later that year, which aimed to unite Indians of all religions and castes in the struggle for independence from British rule.

Extremist phase (1907-1909): In 1907, a group of nationalists within the INC broke away to form the "Extremist" faction, which advocated more militant and radical tactics in the struggle for independence. This included the use of violence and armed resistance against the British colonial government.

The Surat Split (1907): The Extremist faction of the INC clashed with the Moderate faction over the issue of working with the Muslim League. This led to a split within the Congress at its annual session in Surat in 1907, with the Extremists forming the "Garam Dal" (Hot Faction) and the Moderates forming the "Naram Dal" (Soft Faction).

Revolutionary terrorism (1908-1911): Some members of the Extremist faction turned to revolutionary terrorism as a means of achieving independence. This included acts of violence and assassinations of British officials, such as the killing of Sir William Curzon Wyllie in 1909.

Overall, the era of militant nationalism was a period of heightened political and social unrest in India, with Indian nationalists becoming more radical and militant in their approach to challenging British colonial rule. The movement's tactics ranged from peaceful protests and civil disobedience to revolutionary terrorism and armed resistance.

Growth of Militant Nationalism

The growth of militant nationalism in India was a response to the repressive policies of the British colonial government and the growing frustration of Indian nationalists with the slow pace of reforms. Here are some of the factors that contributed to the growth of militant nationalism:

Discontent with the British colonial government: Indian nationalists were increasingly disillusioned with the British colonial government, which they saw as oppressive and exploitative. The British government's policies of economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and political repression fueled nationalist sentiments and sparked protests and unrest.

The failure of constitutional reforms: The British government had introduced limited constitutional reforms in India, such as the Indian Councils Act of 1909, which expanded the number of Indians eligible to vote and hold office. However, these reforms were seen as inadequate and insufficient by Indian nationalists, who demanded greater political rights and representation.

The influence of extremist leaders: A group of nationalist leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, emerged as the leaders of the militant nationalist movement. They advocated for more radical tactics, such as boycotts, strikes, and civil disobedience, to challenge British rule.

The impact of the Partition of Bengal: The partition of Bengal in 1905 was seen as a deliberate attempt by the British government to divide the nationalist movement along religious lines. This led to a wave of protests and boycotts, as well as the growth of the Swadeshi movement, which advocated for the use of indigenous products and self-reliance.

The influence of revolutionary movements: The nationalist movement was influenced by revolutionary movements in other countries, such as the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the Irish Easter Rising of 1916. Some Indian nationalists turned to revolutionary tactics, such as armed resistance and revolutionary terrorism, in their struggle for independence.

Overall, the growth of militant nationalism in India was a response to the failure of constitutional reforms and the repressive policies of the British colonial government. It was characterized by a more radical and militant approach to challenging British rule, and was driven by a sense of frustration and discontent with the slow pace of change.

 Why Militant Nationalism Grew

Militant nationalism grew in India during the early 20th century due to several factors:

Frustration with the slow pace of political reforms: The Indian National Congress had been established in the late 19th century to push for political reforms within the framework of British colonial rule. However, the pace of reforms was slow and inadequate, leading to growing frustration among Indian nationalists.

Economic exploitation and discrimination: The British colonial government pursued policies that led to the economic exploitation of India, such as the drain of wealth and the destruction of local industries. Indians were also subject to discrimination in employment, education, and other areas.

Impact of the Partition of Bengal: The partition of Bengal in 1905, which was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide Hindus and Muslims, sparked widespread protests and boycotts. This event galvanized Indian nationalists and led to the growth of the Swadeshi movement, which promoted the use of indigenous goods and self-reliance.

Influence of extremist leaders: The Indian nationalist movement was led by a group of extremist leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, who advocated for more radical tactics, such as boycotts, strikes, and civil disobedience, to challenge British rule.

Impact of international events: The growth of militant nationalism in India was influenced by international events, such as the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the Irish Easter Rising of 1916. Indian nationalists were inspired by these events and sought to emulate the tactics of revolutionary movements in other countries.

Overall, the growth of militant nationalism in India was driven by a sense of frustration with the slow pace of political reforms and the economic exploitation and discrimination imposed by the British colonial government. It was also influenced by the leadership of extremist nationalists and the impact of international events on the nationalist movement.

 Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule

The recognition of the true nature of British rule was an important aspect of the growth of militant nationalism in India during the early 20th century. Indian nationalists began to realize that the British were not interested in granting India political independence or ensuring social and economic justice for the Indian people.

The British colonial government pursued policies that led to the economic exploitation of India, such as the drain of wealth and the destruction of local industries. Indians were also subject to discrimination in employment, education, and other areas. The slow pace of political reforms, combined with economic exploitation and discrimination, led to growing frustration among Indian nationalists.

Indian nationalists also began to realize that the British were not interested in promoting democracy and freedom in India. The British colonial government used repressive measures to suppress political dissent and suppress nationalist movements. This included the use of censorship, arrests, and imprisonment of nationalist leaders.

Overall, the recognition of the true nature of British rule was an important aspect of the growth of militant nationalism in India. Indian nationalists realized that the British were not interested in granting India political independence or ensuring social and economic justice for the Indian people. This realization led to the adoption of more radical tactics, such as boycotts, strikes, and civil disobedience, to challenge British rule.

Growth of Confidence and Self-Respect

The growth of confidence and self-respect was another important aspect of the growth of militant nationalism in India during the early 20th century. Indian nationalists began to reject the idea of British racial and cultural superiority, and began to assert their own cultural and national identity.

The Indian nationalist movement was characterized by a resurgence of interest in India's history, culture, and traditions. Indian intellectuals and activists sought to revive and promote Indian languages, literature, art, and music, and to challenge the idea that Indian culture was inferior to Western culture.

This cultural revival was linked to a growing sense of pride and confidence among Indian nationalists. They began to assert their right to self-determination, and to demand an end to British colonial rule. This growing confidence was reflected in the adoption of more radical tactics, such as boycotts, strikes, and civil disobedience, to challenge British rule.

Overall, the growth of confidence and self-respect was an important aspect of the growth of militant nationalism in India. Indian nationalists began to reject the idea of British racial and cultural superiority, and began to assert their own cultural and national identity. This growing sense of pride and confidence led to the adoption of more radical tactics to challenge British rule and demand independence for India.

Growth of Education

The growth of education was an important factor in the growth of militant nationalism in India during the early 20th century. The spread of modern education created a new class of educated Indians who were exposed to new ideas and became aware of the political, social, and economic injustices inflicted on India by British colonial rule.

The British colonial government established a modern education system in India in the mid-19th century. This education system created opportunities for Indians to acquire knowledge and skills that were essential for social and economic mobility. The spread of modern education also helped to create a sense of national consciousness among Indians.

Indian nationalist leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhash Chandra Bose were all highly educated individuals who played a prominent role in the nationalist movement. They used their education to challenge British rule and promote the cause of Indian independence.

The growth of education also created a demand for social and political reforms. Educated Indians were exposed to ideas of democracy, freedom, and equality, and began to demand political representation, civil liberties, and social justice. This demand for reforms was reflected in the growth of political organizations and movements that challenged British rule.

Overall, the growth of education was an important factor in the growth of militant nationalism in India. The spread of modern education created a new class of educated Indians who were aware of the political, social, and economic injustices inflicted on India by British colonial rule. This awareness led to the demand for social and political reforms and the growth of political organizations and movements that challenged British rule.

International Influences

International influences also played a role in the growth of militant nationalism in India during the early 20th century. The rise of nationalist movements in other parts of the world, such as in Ireland, Egypt, and Turkey, inspired Indian nationalists to challenge British colonial rule.

Indian nationalists were particularly influenced by the Irish struggle for independence, which was taking place at the same time as the Indian nationalist movement was gaining momentum. Indian nationalists admired the tactics used by the Irish Republican Army and the Irish nationalist leaders, such as the use of civil disobedience and boycotts, and sought to apply them to their own struggle for independence.

The Indian nationalist movement was also influenced by the ideas of anti-colonial thinkers and leaders from other parts of the world, such as Marcus Garvey of Jamaica, W.E.B. Du Bois of the United States, and Sun Yat-sen of China. These leaders advocated for the rights of colonized people and the overthrow of colonial rule, and their ideas resonated with Indian nationalists.

Furthermore, the Indian diaspora, which consisted of Indians living abroad, played a significant role in the growth of militant nationalism. Indian nationalists living abroad formed organizations and networks that supported the nationalist movement in India and advocated for Indian independence.

Overall, international influences were an important factor in the growth of militant nationalism in India. The rise of nationalist movements in other parts of the world inspired Indian nationalists to challenge British colonial rule, and the ideas of anti-colonial thinkers and leaders from other parts of the world resonated with Indian nationalists. The Indian diaspora also played a significant role in supporting the nationalist movement in India.

Reaction to Increasing Westernisation

The reaction to increasing westernisation in India during the colonial period was complex and multifaceted. On the one hand, many Indians embraced aspects of western culture, such as modern medicine, technology, and education. These Indians saw westernisation as a path towards progress and modernity, and believed that it could help India overcome its economic and social problems.

On the other hand, many Indians were critical of westernisation and saw it as a threat to Indian culture and traditions. They believed that westernisation was eroding Indian values and customs, and that it was a form of cultural imperialism that aimed to impose western norms and beliefs on Indian society.

This critique of westernisation was often linked to the broader nationalist movement in India, which sought to challenge British colonial rule and assert Indian independence. Indian nationalists saw westernisation as a tool of colonialism, and argued that it was being imposed on India by the British in order to control and exploit the Indian people.

The nationalist movement also gave rise to a cultural revivalism in India, which sought to promote and preserve Indian traditions and values. This revivalism was expressed through various cultural movements, such as the Swadeshi movement, which encouraged Indians to use Indian-made goods and reject British products, and the Bengal Renaissance, which sought to revive and modernize Indian art, literature, and culture.

Overall, the reaction to increasing westernisation in India during the colonial period was varied and complex. While many Indians embraced aspects of western culture, others were critical of it and saw it as a threat to Indian traditions and values. The critique of westernisation was often linked to the broader nationalist movement in India, which sought to challenge British colonial rule and assert Indian independence, and gave rise to a cultural revivalism that aimed to promote and preserve Indian culture and traditions.

Dissatisfaction with Achievements of Moderates

The Indian National Congress, which was founded in 1885, was initially dominated by a group of moderate leaders who sought to work within the framework of British colonial rule to achieve limited political reforms. However, by the turn of the century, many Indians became dissatisfied with the achievements of the moderate leaders and began to demand more radical and aggressive action to challenge British colonialism.

There were several reasons for this dissatisfaction with the moderate leaders. One was the slow pace of reforms under British colonial rule. Despite the efforts of the moderate leaders to work within the system, progress towards self-government was slow, and many Indians grew frustrated with the lack of progress.

Another reason was the increasing violence and repression of British colonial rule. In particular, the partition of Bengal in 1905, which was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide and weaken the Indian nationalist movement, sparked widespread protests and unrest.

Additionally, the rise of militant nationalism and the influence of leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal also contributed to the dissatisfaction with the moderate leaders. These leaders advocated for more aggressive tactics, such as boycotts and mass protests, and challenged the moderate leaders' belief in gradual reform within the colonial system.

Overall, the dissatisfaction with the achievements of the moderate leaders was driven by a combination of factors, including the slow pace of reforms under British colonial rule, the violence and repression of colonialism, and the rise of more militant nationalist leaders who advocated for more aggressive tactics to challenge colonialism. This dissatisfaction paved the way for the era of militant nationalism, which saw more radical and confrontational tactics being used to challenge British rule.

Reactionary Policies of Curzon

Lord Curzon was the Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, and during his tenure, he implemented several policies that were seen as reactionary and harmful to Indian interests. Some of these policies included:

Partition of Bengal: In 1905, Lord Curzon announced the partition of Bengal, which involved the separation of Bengal into two provinces - Bengal and East Bengal and Assam. This was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide and weaken the Indian nationalist movement, as Bengal was a hotbed of nationalist activity. The partition also had negative economic consequences, as it disrupted trade patterns and caused economic hardship for many Bengalis.

Indian Universities Act, 1904: This act gave the British government greater control over Indian universities and restricted Indian students' freedom of expression and association. The act was seen as an attempt to stifle Indian intellectual and political dissent.

The Arms Act, 1878: Curzon amended the Arms Act in 1903, making it more restrictive and difficult for Indians to obtain firearms. This was seen as an attempt to weaken Indian resistance to British colonial rule.

The Official Secrets Act, 1904: This act made it a criminal offense to disclose any information deemed to be of a sensitive nature to the British government. This act was used to suppress Indian dissent and nationalist activities.

Forest Laws: Curzon implemented several forest laws that restricted the access of local communities to forest resources, which had a negative impact on their livelihoods.

Overall, Curzon's policies were seen as reactionary and harmful to Indian interests. They were designed to strengthen British colonial rule in India and suppress Indian dissent and nationalist activities. The partition of Bengal, in particular, was a significant trigger for the Indian nationalist movement and helped to galvanize support for the struggle for independence.

Existence of a Militant School of Thought

The growth of militant nationalism in India was also fueled by the emergence of a new generation of political leaders who were committed to more aggressive and militant tactics in the struggle for independence. These leaders rejected the moderate approach of earlier nationalist leaders and advocated for more direct action and resistance against British colonial rule.

This militant school of thought was influenced by several factors, including the failure of the moderate approach to achieve significant progress in the struggle for independence, the repressive policies of the British colonial government, and the growth of revolutionary movements and ideas in other parts of the world, such as the Russian Revolution.

Prominent leaders of this militant school of thought included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh. They advocated for a more radical approach to the struggle for independence, including the use of boycotts, strikes, and non-cooperation with British authorities.

The militant school of thought also emphasized the importance of Indian culture and history and rejected the notion that Indian society was inferior to Western society. This emphasis on Indian identity and nationalism was a significant factor in the growth of militant nationalism in India.

Emergence of a Trained Leadership

One of the important factors that contributed to the growth of militant nationalism in India was the emergence of a new generation of leaders who were educated, politically conscious, and committed to the cause of Indian independence. These leaders had received their education in Western institutions and had been exposed to the ideas of Western liberalism and nationalism.

This new generation of leaders included individuals such as Mohandas Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Bhagat Singh, who went on to play significant roles in the Indian independence movement. They were able to provide a clear vision and leadership to the Indian nationalist movement, and their ideas and actions helped to mobilize the masses and galvanize support for the cause of independence.

The emergence of this trained leadership was made possible by the expansion of Western education in India, which had begun in the mid-19th century. The British colonial government had established a network of schools and colleges that provided Western education to the Indian elite. This education had a profound impact on the Indian intelligentsia, who were exposed to Western ideas of democracy, liberalism, and nationalism.

These educated Indians began to question the legitimacy of British rule in India and to demand greater political rights and autonomy. They also began to explore and develop a distinctly Indian form of nationalism that emphasized India's unique history, culture, and traditions.

The emergence of a trained leadership was a crucial factor in the growth of militant nationalism in India, as it provided a new generation of leaders who were able to articulate and mobilize support for the cause of Indian independence.

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was a significant phase in the Indian independence movement that took place from 1905 to 1908. It was a response to the partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, in 1905, which was seen as a move to weaken the growing Indian nationalist movement. The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was a mass movement that aimed to promote Indian goods and industries and to boycott British goods as a means of asserting Indian self-reliance and challenging British economic dominance.

The movement was led by prominent Indian nationalist leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh, among others. The leaders of the movement called for a boycott of British goods and institutions and urged Indians to support Swadeshi or Indian-made products. This led to the promotion of Indian industries and the growth of small-scale enterprises.

The movement gained momentum with the use of non-violent methods such as public meetings, processions, and demonstrations. The movement also included acts of civil disobedience such as the refusal to pay taxes and the burning of British goods in public. The movement was particularly successful in Bengal, where it started, and spread to other parts of India.

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement had a significant impact on the Indian nationalist movement. It challenged British economic dominance and encouraged Indian self-reliance. It also led to the growth of Indian industries and the development of a sense of national consciousness among the Indian people. The movement provided a platform for the emergence of new leaders and the mobilization of the masses in support of the Indian independence movement.

Partition of Bengal to Divide People

The Partition of Bengal was a controversial administrative division of the Bengal province in British India, announced on 19 July 1905 by the then Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. The decision was highly criticized and opposed by the Indian Nationalist Movement, as it was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide and weaken the Bengali community, which was known for its cultural and linguistic unity.

The partition divided Bengal into two separate provinces, Bengal and East Bengal and Assam. Bengal was a Hindu-majority province, while East Bengal and Assam had a Muslim majority. The official reason given for the partition was the administrative convenience of handling a large and populous province. However, the real motive behind the decision was to weaken the growing nationalist movement in Bengal, which was seen as a threat to British colonial rule.

The Partition of Bengal was seen as an attempt to divide the Bengali people on communal lines, and it triggered widespread protests and opposition from various sections of society, including Indian Nationalists, intellectuals, and religious leaders. The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, which aimed to promote Indian goods and industries and to boycott British goods, was launched in response to the Partition of Bengal.

The Partition of Bengal was eventually annulled in 1911 after sustained protests and opposition from the Indian nationalist movement. The decision was seen as a victory for the Indian nationalist movement, and it further strengthened the anti-colonial sentiment in India. The partition also served as a wake-up call for the Indian people, who realized that they needed to unite to fight against British colonial rule.

Anti-Partition Campaign Under Moderates (1903-05)

The anti-partition campaign led by the moderates in India began in 1903, when the idea of partitioning Bengal was first proposed by the British government. The Indian National Congress, which was dominated by moderate leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, initially adopted a conciliatory approach towards the British, hoping to persuade them to change their decision on the partition.

The moderates organized various protests and demonstrations against the partition of Bengal, emphasizing the unity of the Indian people and the importance of preserving the cultural and linguistic diversity of Bengal. They also appealed to the British government to reconsider its decision, arguing that the partition would create communal tensions and weaken the nationalist movement in India.

The anti-partition campaign gained momentum in 1904, when the Indian National Congress held its annual session in Calcutta. The Congress passed a resolution condemning the partition and calling for its reversal. The moderates also organized a series of public meetings and rallies, which were attended by thousands of people, including leaders of different religions and communities.

Despite the efforts of the moderates, the British government went ahead with the partition of Bengal in 1905. This led to widespread protests and demonstrations, which were organized by various nationalist organizations, including the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the revolutionary groups.

The anti-partition movement under the moderates failed to achieve its objectives, as the British government refused to reconsider its decision on the partition. However, the movement laid the foundation for the militant nationalist movement that emerged in India in the years that followed. The failure of the moderates to achieve their objectives also led to disillusionment among the Indian people, who began to question the effectiveness of moderate methods and turned towards more radical forms of nationalism.

The Congress’s Position

During the anti-partition campaign, the Indian National Congress took a clear stand against the partition of Bengal. The Congress under the leadership of Gopal Krishna Gokhale tried to persuade Lord Curzon to reconsider his decision to partition Bengal. However, when the colonial government remained adamant, the Congress launched a mass agitation against the partition.

The Congress passed a resolution in its 1903 session in Madras, which expressed its opposition to the partition of Bengal. The resolution stated that the partition would cause immense harm to the people of Bengal, particularly to the Hindus and Muslims, who had lived together in harmony for centuries. The Congress also argued that the partition was being carried out for the sole purpose of dividing the people and weakening the nationalist movement.

The Congress launched a series of protests and demonstrations against the partition. The most significant of these was the Swadeshi Movement, which called for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made goods. The Congress also organized public meetings, processions, and hartals (strikes) to protest against the partition.

However, the anti-partition campaign led by the Congress under the moderates did not achieve its objective of stopping the partition. Lord Curzon went ahead with the partition, which came into effect on October 16, 1905. Nevertheless, the campaign helped to mobilize public opinion against the British and laid the foundation for more militant forms of nationalism in the years to come.

The Movement under Extremist Leadership

The partition of Bengal and the failure of the anti-partition campaign led to a radicalization of the Indian nationalist movement. The moderates were criticized for their failure to stop the partition and for their continued faith in the British sense of justice. This led to the emergence of a new group of nationalists known as the extremists, who adopted more militant forms of protest and demanded swaraj or self-rule.

The extremists believed that the British would never grant India independence unless they were forced to do so. They argued that the only way to achieve freedom was through mass mobilization and direct action. The extremists rejected the moderate approach of petitioning the British for reform and instead advocated boycotts, strikes, and civil disobedience.

The most prominent leaders of the extremist movement were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai. They were known as the Lal-Bal-Pal trio and played a crucial role in shaping the Indian nationalist movement in the early 20th century.

The extremists organized a new phase of the Swadeshi Movement, which was more radical and militant than the previous one. The movement called for the boycott of British goods, the promotion of Indian-made goods, and the use of Swadeshi or Indian languages in place of English.

The extremists also organized a series of mass protests and demonstrations against the British, which often led to violence and clashes with the police. They called for hartals or strikes, which brought economic activity to a standstill and disrupted British administration.

The extremist movement marked a significant shift in the Indian nationalist movement. It marked the beginning of a more militant phase of the struggle for independence, which would culminate in the non-cooperation movement and the civil disobedience movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.

The Extremist Programme

The Extremist Programme aimed at complete independence, the establishment of a republic in India, and the adoption of non-cooperation and boycott as means of resistance. The following were some of the main features of the Extremist Programme:

Swadeshi and Boycott: The Extremists urged the people to boycott British goods and to use only Indian goods. The movement included the boycott of schools and colleges, courts, government services, and elections.

Passive Resistance: The Extremists adopted the policy of passive resistance, which involved non-violent disobedience of unjust laws, refusal to pay taxes, and peaceful demonstrations.

National Education: The Extremists emphasized the need for national education and the establishment of national schools and colleges to promote Indian culture and traditions.

Hindu-Muslim Unity: The Extremists worked to promote Hindu-Muslim unity and to create a sense of national identity among Indians.

Use of Vernacular Languages: The Extremists advocated the use of Indian vernacular languages and the development of a national language.

Self-help: The Extremists urged Indians to develop self-reliance in all areas, including economic, social, and political spheres.

The Extremist Programme became the foundation of the Indian independence movement and inspired millions of Indians to fight for their freedom from British rule.

New Forms of Struggle

Under the leadership of the Extremists, the Indian National Congress adopted new forms of struggle against the British rule. Some of these new forms of struggle were:

Boycott of British goods: The Extremists called for the boycott of British goods and promotion of swadeshi (indigenous) goods to weaken the economic power of the British.

Passive resistance: They advocated the use of non-violent methods such as passive resistance, civil disobedience, and non-cooperation to protest against the British.

Mass mobilization: They emphasized the need for mass mobilization and organized public meetings, processions, and demonstrations to raise awareness among the people and build up public opinion against the British.

Labour and peasant movements: The Extremists recognized the importance of the working class and peasants in the national movement and sought to organize them into a powerful force against the British.

Cultural revival: They stressed the importance of reviving India's cultural heritage and traditions and sought to promote Indian art, literature, and music.

Revolutionary activities: Some of the more radical Extremists were also involved in revolutionary activities such as bomb-making and assassination attempts to overthrow the British rule. However, these activities were not endorsed by the mainstream Extremist leadership of the Indian National Congress.

Boycott of Foreign Goods

The boycott of foreign goods was one of the major forms of struggle adopted during the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of 1905-1909. The movement was a reaction to the partition of Bengal and aimed at promoting Indian-made goods and boycotting British goods as a means of protest. The idea was to make India self-sufficient and economically independent of British rule.

The boycott movement involved the boycott of not just foreign goods, but also British institutions such as law courts, schools, and colleges. People were urged to boycott foreign cloth and instead wear khadi or homespun cloth. This was seen as a way to promote indigenous industries and provide employment opportunities for Indians.

The boycott movement was not just an economic protest but also a political one. It aimed to promote a sense of national pride and self-respect among Indians and challenge the authority of the British rulers. The movement gained widespread support and participation from all sections of Indian society, including women and students.

The boycott movement was seen as a powerful weapon against British rule and was an important step towards India's independence struggle. It demonstrated the power of non-cooperation and peaceful protest as a means of challenging colonial rule.

Public Meetings and Processions

Public meetings and processions were an important part of the militant nationalist movement. They were used to spread awareness about the cause and to mobilize people. Leaders would give speeches and distribute pamphlets and literature to educate people about the movement and its goals. These meetings and processions were also used as a way of expressing dissent and protesting against British policies. They often drew large crowds and were used as a way of showing the strength and unity of the nationalist movement. However, the British authorities often used force to suppress these gatherings, which sometimes led to violent clashes between the police and protesters.

Corps of Volunteers or ‘Samitis’

The Corps of Volunteers or 'Samitis' was a new form of organization that emerged during the militant nationalist movement. These were groups of young men who were trained to perform military drills and were organized into units under the supervision of local leaders. The aim of these groups was to provide a dedicated cadre of volunteers who could carry out acts of civil disobedience, including protests, strikes, and demonstrations, without resorting to violence.

The Samitis were particularly active during the Swadeshi and Boycott movement and were used to enforce the boycott of foreign goods. They would patrol the streets, intercept and seize imported goods, and sometimes even attack shops that sold foreign goods. The Samitis were an effective tool for the nationalist movement, as they could mobilize quickly and operate independently of the Congress leadership. However, the British authorities viewed them as a threat and used force to suppress them, leading to violent clashes and arrests.

Imaginative use of Traditional Popular Festivals and Melas

During the Swadeshi and Boycott movement, the Indian nationalists used traditional popular festivals and melas as a means of mass mobilization and spreading their message. For example, the Durga Puja festival, which is widely celebrated in Bengal, was used as a platform to organize public meetings, processions, and rallies. The organizers used the festive atmosphere to promote the idea of swadeshi and boycott of British goods. Similarly, other festivals and melas were also utilized for political purposes. The nationalists also used the traditional forms of cultural expression such as songs, dances, and dramas to convey their message of nationalism and freedom to the masses. This helped in creating a sense of pride and self-respect among the people and inculcated in them a spirit of resistance against colonialism.

Emphasis given to Self-Reliance

The extremist leaders of the Indian National Congress gave great emphasis to the concept of self-reliance. They believed that it was essential for Indians to rely on their own resources and not be dependent on foreign goods or help. This idea was reflected in their call for Swadeshi, which encouraged the use of indigenous products and boycott of foreign goods.

The idea of self-reliance also extended to economic and political matters. The extremists believed that India should have full control over its economy and political system, and not be subject to British rule. They emphasized the need for Indian self-rule, which would enable the country to determine its own destiny and make decisions based on the needs and interests of its people.

Programme of Swadeshi or National Education

The Swadeshi or National Education programme was one of the key elements of the extremist programme during the era of militant nationalism. It aimed to promote education that was rooted in Indian culture and traditions, and that would instill a sense of pride and self-respect in Indian youth.

Under this programme, the extremists advocated the establishment of schools and colleges that would be run by Indians and would impart education in Indian languages. They also emphasized the need to reform the existing education system, which they saw as being geared towards producing a class of Indians who were subservient to British rule.

The Swadeshi or National Education programme was seen as an important means of creating a new generation of Indian leaders who would be capable of leading the struggle for independence. Many nationalist leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal played a key role in promoting this programme, and several institutions were established under its aegis, such as the National Council of Education and the Bengal National College.

Swadeshi or Indigenous Enterprises

The Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises were an important aspect of the Swadeshi movement during the Indian freedom struggle. The movement encouraged the use of indigenous goods and products, and the establishment of indigenous industries to reduce India's dependence on foreign goods and to promote self-reliance.

The Swadeshi enterprises were essentially small-scale industries that were set up in various parts of India. These industries produced goods that were previously imported from foreign countries, such as textiles, paper, sugar, soap, matches, and cigarettes. The Swadeshi enterprises were established with the help of funds collected from the public, and were often run by local leaders and volunteers.

The Swadeshi enterprises were an important source of employment for the Indian people, and also played a crucial role in building a sense of national pride and unity. They helped to promote the use of indigenous goods and products, and also helped to generate a sense of self-reliance and self-confidence among the Indian people.

The Swadeshi enterprises were an important part of the overall Swadeshi movement, which played a significant role in India's struggle for freedom from British rule. The movement helped to galvanize the Indian people and create a sense of national consciousness and pride, which ultimately led to India's independence in 1947.

Impact in the Cultural Sphere

The Swadeshi and boycott movement had a significant impact on the cultural sphere of India. It revived and promoted traditional Indian art and crafts and led to the emergence of a new genre of literature and music. The movement emphasized the use of Swadeshi or Indian-made goods, which led to a revival of Indian handicrafts and the development of new ones. This helped in promoting the economic well-being of the rural artisans and craftsmen.

The movement also brought about a new sense of national pride and cultural identity. The songs and poems composed during this period reflected the nationalist spirit and the urge for freedom. Rabindranath Tagore, the great Indian poet, composer, and philosopher, composed many patriotic songs that inspired the people to fight for their rights and freedom. The movement also promoted the use of the Hindi language and helped in its development as a language of national integration. Overall, the Swadeshi and boycott movement had a deep impact on the cultural and intellectual life of India.

Extent of Mass Participation

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement witnessed mass participation across different sections of the society. It was not limited to any particular region or community. People from all walks of life, including students, peasants, workers, traders, lawyers, and even women, participated in the movement.

The movement was particularly strong in the Bengal region, where the partition had caused a lot of resentment. However, it soon spread to other parts of the country as well. The boycott of foreign goods, in particular, was widely popular and had a significant impact on British trade.

The movement also witnessed the active participation of many prominent leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh, and many others. They played a crucial role in mobilizing the masses and giving direction to the movement.

Women played an active role in the Swadeshi and Boycott movement. They participated in public meetings, processions, and picketing. Women's organizations were also formed to support the cause of Swadeshi and Boycott. Many women took part in the production of indigenous goods and spinning of khadi (hand-spun cotton). This movement provided women with a platform to voice their concerns and assert their rights. The participation of women in the Swadeshi and Boycott movement played an important role in the overall success of the movement.

The role of students in the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was significant. Many students joined the movement and played an active part in it. They boycotted foreign goods and participated in public meetings and processions. They also formed the backbone of the Corps of Volunteers or ‘Samitis’ and provided valuable assistance in organizing and carrying out the movement’s activities.

Students played a crucial role in the Swadeshi and National Education programme. They participated in the establishment of schools and colleges, and some even left their formal education to work in the movement full-time.

The role of students in the movement helped to create a new generation of leaders who would go on to play important roles in the Indian independence movement. Many of these leaders were influenced by the ideas of nationalism and self-reliance that they had learned during their participation in the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.

Muslims played a significant role in the era of militant nationalism in India. The partition of Bengal in 1905 was seen as an attempt to divide Hindus and Muslims and weaken their unity against British rule. The Muslim community strongly opposed the partition and participated in the anti-partition movement.

Muslim leaders such as Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka, Ameer Ali, and Abul Kalam Azad were actively involved in the Indian National Congress and supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement. They called for Hindu-Muslim unity and worked to bridge the communal divide.

However, there were also differences among Muslim leaders regarding the role of the community in the nationalist movement. Some, like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, believed that Muslims should not participate in politics and instead focus on education and socio-economic development. Others, like Allama Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocated for a separate Muslim political entity and eventually led the movement for the creation of Pakistan.

During the era of militant nationalism, labour unrest and trade unions played an important role in the Indian independence movement. The working-class movement in India began to grow in the early 20th century. The working class faced many problems like long working hours, low wages, poor working conditions, etc.

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement gave impetus to the labour movement. Many workers participated in the movement, and labour strikes became common. The workers demanded better working conditions and wages. The labour movement was supported by the Indian National Congress and other nationalist organizations.

In 1918, the All India Trade Union Congress was formed. It was the first central trade union organization in India. The trade union movement played an important role in the Indian independence movement. The trade unions were actively involved in various protests and movements, and they provided support to the nationalist organizations.

The role of the labour unrest and trade unions in the Indian independence movement was significant. They helped in creating awareness among the workers and mobilizing them to participate in the struggle for independence. The labour unrest and trade unions played a crucial role in the struggle against British colonialism.